The similarity between the federal and regional constitutions was deceptive, however, and the conduct of public affairs reflected wide differences among the regions. Its residents were employed in official capacities and were active in business. "The Hidden Hand of Overrule: Political Agents and the Establishment of British Colonial Rule in Northern Nigeria, 18861914". The Headquarters of Gombe emirate was Gombe-Abba[15] until when the then Emir of Gombe, Umaru Kwairanga (18981922), was forced to move from Gombe-Abba, a town founded by his grandfather and the founder of Gombe Emirate, Modibbo Bubayero, to Nafada town in 1913, and then to the current Gombe in 1919, that was after Gombe Emirate was conquered by British colonialists in 1903. The receding British presence enabled local officials and politicians to gain access to patronage over government jobs, funds for local development, market permits, trade licenses, government contracts, and even scholarships for higher education. In 1851 deposed king Akintoye of Lagos sought British help in restoring him to the throne. Its activist membership was drawn from local government and emirate officials who had access to means of communication and to repressive traditional authority that could keep the opposition in line. Lagos was annexed as a Crown Colony in 1861 via the Lagos Treaty of Cession.[30]. ", Helen Chapin Metz, ed. Native Administration was responsible for police, hospitals, public works and local courts. Officials of the Sokoto Caliphate considered these treaties quite differently; from their perspective, the British were granted only extraterritorial rights that did not prevent similar arrangements with the Germans and the French and certainly did not surrender sovereignty. Broadening political participation and expanding educational opportunities and other social services also were viewed as threats to the status quo. It soon gained a virtual monopoly over trade along the River[11]. In 1920, portions of former German Cameroon were mandated to Britain by the League of Nations and were administered as part of Nigeria. How did Africans resist c. In the 1700s, the British Empire and other European powers had settlements and forts in West Africa but had not yet established the full-scale plantation colonies which existed in the Americas. Among his leading lieutenants were Samuel Akintola of Ogbomoso and the Oni of Ife, the most important of the Yoruba monarchs. [8] Azikiwe was installed as Governor-General of the federation and Balewa continued to serve as head of a democratically elected parliamentary, but now completely sovereign, government. 1960-1966: Early diplomatic relations. Throughout this period of reign, many changes were made to their . Before 1898, the scramble for Africa by European countries led to the partition of Africa after the Berlin conference of 1884-85. In all three regions, minority parties represented the special interests of ethnic groups, especially as they were affected by the majority. Significantly, Macauley's NNDP remained almost entirely a Lagos party, popular only in the area whose people already had experience in elective politics. Ethnic cleavages intensified in the 1950s. ", Simon Heap, "'We think prohibition is a farce': drinking in the alcohol-prohibited zone of colonial northern Nigeria. These courts contained majorities British members and represented a new level of presumptive British sovereignty in the Bight of Biafra. While this system had built-in contradictions, over the years the Nigerian system developed into a sophisticated form of local government, especially in the emirates and under the banner of native administration, which became the hallmark of British colonial rule in Africa. British expansion accelerated in the last decades of the nineteenth century. Inconsistencies in British policy reinforced existing cleavages based on regional animosities, as the British tried both to preserve the indigenous cultures of each area and to introduce modern technology, and Western political and social concepts. To be sure, there were widespread resistances against colonial rule, which include the 'Abd al-Qadir led resistance against the French in Algeria, the Asante King (Prempeh I) led revolt against British colonialists in Ghana, the Maji Maji revolt in Tanganyika, the Ndebele rebellions in Rhodasia, the Ijebu Kingdom and the Opobo resistances in . During the war, union membership increased sixfold to 30,000. In the twentieth century, Lagos became a center for resistance to colonial rule. The present attempt is to inquire into the educational policy of colonial Nigeria, the aim, the nature and process of educational development and how it affected women in Nigeria. Although it reserved effective power in the hands of the Governor-General and his appointed Executive Council, the so-called Richards Constitution (after Governor-General Sir Arthur Richards, who was responsible for its formulation) provided for an expanded Legislative Council empowered to deliberate on matters affecting the whole country. what were negative effects of colonial rule in african continent. In the long term, the acceptance of Christianity by large numbers of Nigerians depended on the various denominations adapting to local conditions. After initially adopting an indirect rule approach, in 1906 the British merged the small Lagos Colony and the Southern Nigeria Protectorate into a new Colony of Southern Nigeria, and in 1914 that was combined with the Northern Nigeria Protectorate to form the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria. In 1946 a new constitution was approved by the British Parliament at Westminster and promulgated in Nigeria. Missionary forces demanded prohibition of liquor, which proved highly unpopular. Colonial Lagos was a busy, cosmopolitan port. [72], The Influenza pandemic made its way to the port of Lagos by September 1918 by way of a number of ships including the SS Panayiotis, the SS Ahanti, and the SS Bida. The High Commissioner will be guided by all the usual laws of succession and the wishes of the people and chief but will set them aside if he desires for good cause to do so. [31], In 1891, the consulate established the Niger Coast Protectorate Force or "Oil Rivers Irregulars".[32]. Early nationalists tended to ignore Nigeria as the focus of patriotism. Anticolonialism in the twentieth and twenty-first century refers to two interconnected concepts: a historical event and a critical analytic. In the north, appeals to Islamic legitimacy upheld the rule of the emirs, so that nationalist sentiments were related to Islamic ideals. As its head, the master trader taxed other traders who were members of his "house"; he maintained a war vessel, a large dugout canoe that could hold several tons of cargo and dozens of crew, for the defense of the harbor. Many changes accompanied British rule: Western education, the English language, and Christianity spread during the period; new forms of money, transportation, and communication were developed; and the Nigerian economy became based on the export of cash crops. Indigenous responses to imperialism during the period of 1750-1900 varied widely depending on the specific group of people and the imperial power they were interacting with. Though the Europeans possess many considerable settlements both upon the coast of Africa and in the East Indies, they have not yet established in either of those countries such numerous and thriving colonies as those in the islands and continent of America. Afeadie, "The Hidden Hand of Overrule" (1996), p. 1719. Although Azikiwe later came to be recognised as the leading spokesman for national unity, when he first returned from university training in the United States, his outlook was pan-African rather than nationalist, and emphasised the common African struggle against European colonialism. The policy of indirect rule used in Northern Nigeria became a model for British colonies elsewhere in Africa. The Eastern region was dominated by Azikiwe and the Western one by Chief Obafemi Awolowo, a Yoruba lawyer who in 1950 founded the Action Group. His political platform called for economic and educational development, Africanization of the civil service, and self-government for Lagos. As a protectorate, it did not have the status of a colony, so its officials were appointed by the Foreign Office and not by the Colonial Office. Most Europeans tended to overlook their own differences and were surprised and shocked that Nigerians wanted to develop new denominations independent of European control. Internal self-government was granted to the Western and Eastern regions in 1957. Asante Resistance (Ghana) 6. This primary resistance was not unified and centered, yet it allowed understanding that the colonial rule and the presence of Europeans in Africa were negative (Chamberlain 89). The preparation of a new federal constitution for an independent Nigeria was carried out at conferences held at Lancaster House in London in 1957 and 1958, which were presided over by The Rt. Although lacking Azikiwe's compelling personality, Awolowo was a formidable debater as well as a vigorous and tenacious political campaigner. Each was under a Lieutenant Governor and provided independent government services. [70], Lugard's immediate successor (19191925), Sir Hugh Clifford, was an aristocratic professional administrator with liberal instincts who had won recognition for his enlightened governorship of the Gold Coast in 19121919. Lugard informed the leaders of conquered Sokoto: The Fulani in old times [] conquered this country. From Lugard's point of view, clear-cut military victories were necessary because the surrenders of the defeated peoples weakened resistance elsewhere. He aroused political awareness through his newspaper, the Lagos Daily News. rebellion. In 1950 Aminu Kano, who had been instrumental in founding the NPC, broke away to form the Northern Elements Progressive Union (NEPU), in protest against the NPC's limited objectives and what he regarded as a vain hope that traditional rulers would accept modernization. This was because; education in Southern Nigeria was already leading to a level of awareness and militancy or resistance to colonial rule. Village Heads were paid 10 shillings for conscripts, and fined 50 if they failed to supply. Northern leaders committed to modernization were also firmly connected to the traditional power structure. The most powerful figure in the party was Ahmadu Bello, the Sardauna of Sokoto. Divide and rule policy: This was mainly applied in areas where African societies or population had poor relations as a result of differences between their leaders or divisions created by Christian religious sects to easily defeat Africans in case of impending resistance against colonial rule. After the Napoleon war, the British tried to expand their colonial rule in Africa and began to establish trade tides with Nigeria in 1898. [75] The colonial government was not equipped nor ready in general for such a situation. It backed Yoruba irredentism in the Fulani-ruled emirate of Ilorin in the Northern Region, and separatist movements among non-Igbo in the Eastern Region. Although this trade grew to significant proportionspalm oil exports alone were worth 1 billion a year by 1840it was concentrated near the coast, where palm trees grew in abundance. The economy suffered from the decline in the slave trade, although considerable smuggling of slaves to the Americas continued for years afterward. The British answered this activity by attempting to create a more representational colonial system. Libyan Resistance. The central government, presided over by the governor-general and accountable to the secretary for the colonies in London, was more powerful but distant from the people. resistance to British invasion and colonial rule so as to close that vacuum created by the 'majority syndrome' approach. Deadly battles broke out sporadically through 1906. Whereas Lugard had applied lessons learned in the north to the administration of the south, Clifford was prepared to extend to the north practices that had been successful in the south. Azikiwe had less interest in purely Nigerian goals than did Davies, a student of Harold Laski at the London School of Economics, whose political orientation was considered left-wing. Frequently African armies of 20, 000 were defeated by European-led armies of 2,000 or less. The superior weapons, tactics and political unity of the British are commonly given as reasons for their decisive ultimate victory. Portuguese Roman Catholic priests who accompanied traders and officials to the West African coast introduced Christianity to the Edo Empire in the fifteenth century. Because Western education and Christianity spread rapidly in the south and not in the north, development was much slower in the north, and the growing disparity between north and south later caused political tensions. Christian missionaries were barred, and the limited government efforts in education were harmonized with Islamic institutions.[67]. Uneasy with the amount of latitude allowed traditional rulers under indirect rule, Clifford opposed further extension of the judicial authority held by the northern emirs. Examples of passive resistance include complex and/or costly application processes, a failure to provide guidance on how to request information, or enforcement mechanisms that are difficult to use. Britain subsequently lobbied other European powers to stop the slave trade as well. However, development of the Nigerian oilfields slowed when Bergheim died in a car crash in September 1912. The only significant interruption in economic development arose from natural disasterthe Great Drought of 191314. The Royal Navy bombarded Lagos in November 1851, ousted the pro-slavery Oba Kosoko and established a treaty with the newly installed Oba Akintoye, who was expectedly more amenable to British interests. The protectorate was organised to control and develop trade coming down the Niger. The election of the House of Representatives after the adoption of the 1954 constitution gave the NPC a total of seventy-nine seats, all from the Northern Region. British business interests wanted to use this to create a monopoly over the industry, but Prime Minister H. H. Asquith's Liberal government and subsequent war coalition favored allowing international free trade. Laird's efforts were stimulated by the detailed reports of a pioneer German explorer, Heinrich Barth, who travelled through much of Borno and the Sokoto Caliphate, where he recorded information about the region's geography, economy and inhabitants. To prevent any united opposition to its authority, the British adopted a divide-and-rule policy, keeping Nigerian groups separate from one another as much as possible. practice of indirect rule, Brown contends that culture industries like Nollywood can sustain capitalism . . The book traces communications in Nigeria back to pre-colonial indigenous communications, through the development of telecommunication, broadcasting networks, the press, the Nigerian lm industry ('Nollywood') and on to the digital . An extensive immigrant population of southerners, especially Igbo, already were living in the north; they dominated clerical positions and were active in many trades. After the Willink Commission examined and reported on this issue in 1958, independence was granted. nigeria resistance to colonial rule. The Nigerian Legislative Council was established in 1914 and was given limited jurisdiction; it was replaced in 1922 by a larger one that included elected members from Lagos and Calabar, although its powers also were limited and the northern provinces remained outside its control. Park reached the upper Niger the next year by travelling inland from the Gambia River. [22] Many locals remained unconvinced of the Crown's authority to completely reverse the legal and moral attributes of a social institution through fiat. The Nigerian Resistance. After the 1930s, political activities focused primarily on ways to end British rule. [31], Captain John Glover, the colony's administrator, created a militia of Hausa troops in 1861. The company received 865,000 compensation for the loss of its Charter. Background: Attitudes Towards Policing The period from the mid-1800s to the early 1900s marked the zenith of imperial rule in Africa. Every Sultan and Emir and the principal officers of state will be appointed by the high Commissioner throughout all this country. The Anglicans and other religious groups had a conscious "native church" policy to develop indigenous ecclesiastical institutions to become independent of Europeans. In 1912, Lugard returned to Nigeria from his six-year term as Governor of Hong Kong, to oversee the merger of the northern and southern protectorates. The company negotiated treaties with Sokoto, Gwandu and Nupe that were interpreted as guaranteeing exclusive access to trade in return for the payment of annual tribute. He was aware that the Muslim north would present problems, but he had hopes for progress along the lines which he laid down in the south, where he anticipated "general emancipation" leading to a more representative form of government. Oil income was still marginal, but the prospects for continued economic expansion appeared bright and accentuated political rivalries on the eve of independence. The slave trade was heaviest in the period 17001850, with an average of 76,000 people taken from Africa each year between 1783 and 1792. [11], The British led a series of military campaigns to enlarge its sphere of influence and expand its commercial opportunities. Crowther, a liberated Yoruba slave, had been educated in Sierra Leone and in Britain, where he was ordained before returning to his homeland with the first group of CMS missionaries.